Schemata

     Cognitive scientists describe schema as the process of how people organize and store their information within memory. Memory development in humans is organized in a semantic manner which is comparable to the way a thesaurus is organized; in classes of information rather than a word for word meaning such as the way a dictionary is organized (McAnally, Rose, and Quigley 1999). Schemata involves a variety of experiences, ranging from simple objects, such as a ball or shoe, to abstract units, such as emotions, and extends to complex events, such as a wedding. In order to make connections between new experiences and prior experiences, while incorporating connections into houses of information within the long-term memory, schema needs to be developed and activated. Making connections to prior experiences is an essential part of facilitating comprehension.
           Cognitive scientists believe there are two classifications of memory, episodic and semantic (figure 3.1). Information related to specific events, such as what a person did over the holiday, or what they may have consumed for dinner is stored in the episodic memory. General knowledge is organized in classes, which include spatial knowledge and social skills, and are stored in semantic memory. Because every person has different experiences, the way information is classified is varies. Students need to be shown how to make connections based on their episodic and semantic memory. 

             Activating appropriate schema to complement reading instruction allows students to approach reading with experiences the students are already familiar with; it aids acquisition, storage, and retrieval of meaningful information. In the reading process, activation of prior knowledge is essential as a prereading activity. By activating the appropriate schemata prior to the reading experience, students build on what they already know or have experienced. This leads to comprehension of written text. Students may have the prior experience in the form of sign or speech; however, the bridge between written and expressive language may not be established. Success or failure of comprehension of the text can be related to the proper activation of schema prior to the reading process. When the student has no prior knowledge or experience with the topic, it often results in the inability to comprehend what is being read.
            Rumelhart (1980) referred to schemata as “the building blocks of cognition” (McAnally, Rose, and Quigley 1999). He did this because schemata represent the numerous networks of information, which is used to comprehend new experiences, information, and events. Teachers need to always concentrate on the words ‘building blocks of cognition’. It is important for teachers to guide students step by step, based on their prior experiences. They also need to link students’ experiences from an expressive form to reading written text to facilitate comprehension.
             A common problem with students is the activation of inappropriate schema.  An example of this would be the concept of ‘bus’. When a student reads the word bus, he/she may automatically think of a school bus. In reality, the story is discussing the concept of bussing tables. The student becomes confused and reads the text as two nouns, bus and table, rather than the verb bus and the noun table.
            Because each person comes with a variety of experiences, no two experiences are the same. In the reading process, students must be taught how to access the correct schema and how to make a new connection within the appropriate schema. An example of how to appropriately activate this schema is to introduce the concept of ‘bus’ in the preteaching stage. An excellent way to discuss this concept is by discussing a visit to the student’s favorite restaurant. The teacher would begin by asking the student if the tables are dirty or clean when he/she sits at a table. Then, they would discuss who cleans the table, allowing the student to give input. Once discussion is complete, the teacher should introduce the word bus and ask the student how the word bus relates to cleaning tables.  Finally, the teacher would explain to the student that the word bus also means to clean tables.
            When readers make appropriate connections between their experiences and written text, schema functions in a variety of ways. Readers can look for and select information which fits the purpose of reading. Students are guided in looking and selecting key topics through schema activation; good readers will most likely make inferences, anticipate, predict, and perform cloze procedures as they read. Appropriate schema activation helps students organize thoughts as they read, integrating new thoughts with old information. This guides in reading comprehension. Strategies that help in schema activation assist students in improving their elaboration skills; this is a cognitive process that involves critical thinking skills, such as judgment and evaluation of text.
            Pearson and Spiro (1980) found and explained five potential problems that students can exhibit within the schema theory. The first to consider is schema availability. Provided a reading selection with a topic in which the student has limited or no exposure, the student will struggle with comprehending the text. It was found by Johnston and Pearson that individual differences in comprehension were dependent on prior knowledge. To truly assess what a student knows in regards to a particular topic, instructional strategies, such as semantic webbing, should be used to develop a more comprehensive schema.
            Schema selection is the process in which the incorrect schema is activated though prior knowledge is available. Because of this, students rely on bottom-up processing and do not use the schema to comprehend written text. This often happens because students do not understand that they can use anything or any method to comprehend the text, not just the text in itself. The best way to avoid inappropriate schema selection is to focus on specific strategies, such as semantic mapping, during the pre-reading phase. These strategies should clearly define the appropriate selection of schema, thus allowing the students to become more active readers. Appropriate strategies for the schema theory are provided in Figure 3.3.

 Teaching Strategies Using Schema Theory

             Schema maintenance is essential in keeping the students’ focus on the appropriate schema. Students may have the appropriate schema during the prereading phase of instruction; however, the schema may change or drop out during the reading process.  There are several causes for the loss or change of schema throughout the process of reading, which include an over reliance on bottom-up processing. The students’ focus tends to be on decoding words rather than reading for meaning. Another problem with poor readers is that their connection between schema and text become unclear. Assisting students in schema development between narrative and expository text could help overcome some of the concerns associated with schema maintenance.  
            Assisting students in focusing on the main idea may relieve some of the problems with the over reliance on bottom-up processing. Students focus too much on the graphic parts of the text rather than the semantic parts. When asked to rephrase, students will often struggle with a verbatim response rather than an interpretation. In the interpretation response, the student can demonstrate that they clearly comprehend what they have read; this shows a connection from the text to their background knowledge. Teaching strategies such as modeling, teacher read alouds, and question-answer relationships (QAR) should be applied to students who tend to rely on bottom-up processing.
            Students may also rely too much on top-down, or schema-based processing. Characteristics of an over reliance on top-down processing include skimming of texts and careless answers to questions. Students need to develop the understanding that good answers to questions may come from within or outside the text (McAnally, Rose, and Quigley 1999). Having students note the page number, where questions can be found, is an excellent strategy for students to facilitate study skills. The maze procedure can also be used to reduce an over reliance of top-down processing; this procedure is similar to the cloze procedure, but instead of a blank, students are given a choice between two words.
            It is essential for teachers to become aware of schema theory and how to apply it to their instructional strategies. When students are presented with a new concept, teachers need to set up a variety of experiences, so that the students’ prior knowledge can be built on. It is also important for the teacher to include the student and incorporate his/her ideas, feelings, opinions, and knowledge, so that the student gains meaning from their own perspective. From this, students need to be taught how to compare and contrast. A great instructional strategy for this is using a Venn diagram. Students who are involved with classroom instruction and participation will take pride in what they have learned, thus setting up conditions that enable them to become active learners. It will also encourage the students to become actively engaged with their newly established schema. Finally, reading materials need to be presented with concepts in which the child is familiar. Prior knowledge is the key to comprehension of written text.

 Copyright © 2005, Danielle Thor. All Rights Reserved.
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Last updated: 04/04/08.